Tag: science

Population growth & nature

The four lines in this diagram are projections based on four levels of fertility of the general population. In 2059, there could be more than 20 million people in the state of Israel. However, if the birthrate drops to the replacement level of 2.1 children per woman during her lifetime, in 2059, it would be only about 10 million. (image from population.org.il)

While by no means unique to Israel, with less space than most to work with, it is happening a little faster there – population overload. While some feel it is too late to do anything to alleviate the problem, one growing group of Israelis is putting its energy into making a bid to re-educate the public about the need for stabilization, as opposed to growth.

One of the leaders in the group is Prof. Alon Tal, chair of the department of public policy at Tel Aviv University (TAU). Tal was born and raised in North Carolina before making aliyah after high school, at the age of 20.

“I’m an activist trapped in the body of an academic,” he quipped. “For many years, I fought it, but I tried very hard to stay an advocate for environmental interests in the country.”

A father to three daughters, Tal decided to move to Israel, as it seemed like a unique and exciting place, and he wanted to take his Jewish identity seriously.

“In Israel, every year, we take open spaces and turn them into houses, highways and commercial centres,” he told the Jewish Independent. “We live in a small country. We have the responsibility to give quality of life, to find a better way. We’re not meeting our responsibility to our great land.”

Tal is at the forefront of Israeli leaders calling on the Israeli government to adopt a policy that stabilizes the population.

“We have to cancel financial payments to families with more than two children,” he said. “We should not be encouraging it [larger families]. It means that we need to strengthen the status of women in the communities, like in the Orthodox communities. We need to make contraception available free of charge, [grant] basic rights of women to abortion, by removing some of the strings attached…. We need a policy that [aims for] stability, rather than maximum growth.”

While most Israeli Jews are raised with the fear that the Arab population will outgrow the Jewish one, Tal is trying to make people aware that there are lower fertility levels being seen in most populations, including Arab ones, while Jewish are on the rise.

A main thrust to all this need for change, Tal said, is the alarming rate of vanishing nature.

“To me, it’s very clear,” he said. “Israel’s wildlife is disappearing. It’s happening faster than I thought it would. If we had 10,000 gazelles 15 years ago, there are only about 2,500 now and they were just declared endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Pretty much, when you go through that report, you can see everything is on the decline. One-third of mammalian species are described as endangered or extinct. It’s a horrible thing that Israel is letting this happen. I don’t want anyone to [be able to say] they didn’t know this was going on.”

When the Independent contacted Tal to be interviewed for this article, he was en route to the official opening of a new museum at TAU – Israel’s Museum of Natural History.

Tal has helped write new laws and has also been involved, indirectly, with Israel’s National Nature Assessment Program (NNAP). Recently, the first State of Nature report came out, explaining how construction and agricultural development have introduced some invasive species to Israel – to the extent that several bird species in southern Israel can no longer survive.

NNAP has established a program that operates out of the new museum, as part of a joint initiative with Jewish National Fund Israel, the Environmental Protection Ministry, and Israel Nature and Parks Authority. Its mission is to promote proper land management based on the science of open areas with Israel’s biological diversity in mind.

“It’s not a policy thing,” said Tal. “We want to save wildlife, set aside land, create ecological corridors, stop hunting and stabilize population growth.”

Although Tal acknowledged that the need to do these things is not news to many people, he is adamant that it must continuously be communicated in different ways to get to the tipping point of producing change.

“I was on television three times this week,” he said. “Every time I’m there, I mention what’s going on. I’m doing what I can do. Everyone needs to make a contribution.

“This is really about a change in Israel’s cultural DNA. We were raised on maximum population growth. We now have to stabilize. We have to tell people that, if we want to be responsible for other species that means we have to stop the incredible hemorrhaging of open spaces. If we don’t, then there won’t be any more nature.”

Tal plans to keep meeting with every willing influential person in order to educate enough people to swing the pendulum towards restoring nature. He anticipates that the new museum will be helpful in this regard.

“In order to change something, you have to know,” said Tal. “You have to look at the habitats, species logs, and take measures there. Anybody who considers Israel a promised land or has an emotional attachment to this holy place – Christian, Muslim, Jewish – we all share this responsibility. Just like how I make contributions for the Amazon rainforest, because I understand how it affects me. If you have an initiative you feel connected to, you should support it. Come to Israel and get involved, go on vacation and get involved, write letters to Israel’s decision-makers letting them know you expect the Jewish state to be a responsible trustee of its nature.”

For more information, visit population.org.il.

Rebeca Kuropatwa is a Winnipeg freelance writer.

Getting closer look at Jupiter

This JunoCam image highlights Oval BA. (photo from nasa.gov)

The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) recently released the first findings of the Juno research spacecraft, which entered Jupiter’s atmosphere last year.

The Weizmann Institute of Science’s Dr. Yohai Kaspi is a senior member of the Juno mission team. The reason why this research is so important, he said, is because it will allow us to better understand how the solar system was formed.

“To do that, we really need to understand Jupiter and how it was formed because, then, we can understand earth, in sequence,” said Kaspi.

photo - Dr. Yohai Kaspi of the Weizmann Institute of Science
Dr. Yohai Kaspi of the Weizmann Institute of Science. (photo from WIS)

For Kaspi, the fascination with space came at the early age of 7, when his dad shared some pictures of the Voyager I and II and took him stargazing. His interest grew from there, including when he was navigating in the Negev while in the Israel Defence Forces.

“My hobby growing up was competitive sailing,” said Kaspi. “That drew my interest into meteorology and understanding why the wind blows the way it does. Growing up in Nahariya, which borders Lebanon … all kinds of stuff [are] coming from Lebanon – currents, trash. It was very obvious where the wind or current was coming from and that connected to sailing.”

Kaspi studied math and physics at Hebrew University before heading to the United States, seeking adventure and a doctorate at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Soon after, he was recruited to be a professor at the Weizmann Institute of Science.

While at MIT, Kaspi became connected to the Juno mission, developing instruments to help measure atmospheric conditions on Jupiter.

“I was interested in space and the weather,” said Kaspi. “I studied meteorology, as it kind of brings them together … [with] planetary science. We have planets, which resemble earth in some aspects, but we don’t understand their features and circulation.”

While Jupiter is by far the biggest planet in the solar system (11 times the diameter of earth) and has the greatest mass (300 times that of earth), it is a gas planet (i.e. it has no liquid or solid parts). Kaspi has studied Jupiter’s different weather zones and deltas.

“I developed a theory for understanding how deeply they extend,” said Kaspi. “When you look at Jupiter, you have this red and white belt, or zone. That’s all at the cloud level, so it condensates at the same temperature. But, we have no information what’s happening underneath them. What we needed was a global way to survey what was happening underneath the cloud layer. And that’s exactly what Juno is.

“During my PhD, I developed a new method to relate between the gravity field of the planet and the flows underneath this cloud layer. To understand Jupiter, we need to understand what’s happening in its interior.”

Kaspi has been involved with Juno since 2008, along with 30 to 40 other scientists who form the core of the mission, developing and designing the experiments, and interpreting the data.

photo - This enhanced colour view of Jupiter’s south pole was created by citizen scientist Gabriel Fiset using data from the JunoCam on NASA’s Juno spacecraft
This enhanced colour view of Jupiter’s south pole was created by citizen scientist Gabriel Fiset using data from the JunoCam on NASA’s Juno spacecraft. (photo from nasa.gov)

“We’re trying to deduce the depths of the flows from the gravity measurements of the planet,” explained Kaspi. “The purpose is to see what’s happening inside the planet. It has nine instruments and each one probes in different ways what is happening in the planet’s interior.

“One is a gravity instrument…. We send a beam from the spacecraft to earth. The beam travels 800 million kilometres and reaches earth. A desert in California captures that beam.

“We try to see the accelerations and decelerations of the spacecraft around the planet … trying to understand … the flow field and the gravity field of Jupiter.”

It was only when we first saw earth from space that we were able to understand the changing atmospheric conditions that are part of what is largely considered part of climate change, said Kaspi.

“We’d be able to understand how the solar system was formed, including earth,” he said of one of the project’s possible results. “For example, it’s really important for us to know if there’s a core inside Jupiter. A planet with a big or small core would have a different effect on the gravity field. When we measure the gravity field, we can deduce what’s happening deep inside the planet, which would lead us to different theories of how the solar system was formed.

“The connection to earth is we see the objects of Jupiter’s atmospheres … we don’t understand their strengths, how wide they are and how deep they are. We don’t have theories for that. If you want to have a good understanding of objects on earth, you have to look at the sister planet.”

The data-collecting portion of the Juno mission will come to a close at the end of this year. After 10 years of research and six orbits, the data will be analyzed to determine the direction of the mission going forward.

“We have already a lot of good data and we’re reaching a point where we can have significant results for understanding the structure, depths and composition of the atmosphere, but it’s a process,” said Kaspi. “Basically, we have one measurement every 53 days. So, every 53 days, I get my stuff and go to the U.S. and stay there for a week, analyzing the data and analyzing it for the rest of the 45 days, and then go back.”

Regardless of the results, Kaspi will continue the work he is doing at the Weizmann Institute on climate change and working on an instrument that will be sent to Jupiter on board the 2022 spacecraft being built by the European Space Agency.

“It will be the first Israeli instrument that will go beyond earth’s orbit,” said Kaspi. “That’s exciting. So, we’re involved in that and a variety of projects, trying to achieve fundamental understanding.”

As far as space exploration for the purpose of finding another planet fit for human dwelling, Kaspi said, “I’m just going to say that, if there is life in the solar system, it might be in the moons of Jupiter … because they have liquid water, a deep ocean, tens to hundreds of kilometres deep. Maybe there is life there.”

The public can follow the Juno mission on Facebook at facebook.com/nasajuno.

Rebeca Kuropatwa is a Winnipeg freelance writer.

Jerusalem a high-tech hub

Lior Schillat of Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research and Maya Halevy of Bloomfield Science Museum Jerusalem will speak at Jerusalem of Gold: Capital of Innovation & Tech on July 16. (photos from CFHU Vancouver)

“Hebrew University is probably the only university that ‘founded’ a state rather than vice versa, as the cornerstone for the university was laid on July 24, 1918, and, on April 1, 1925, the Mount Scopus campus was opened,” Dina Wachtel, Western region executive director, Canadian Friends of the Hebrew University, told the Independent. “The contemporary history of the city of Jerusalem and the story of the Six Day War is intertwined with the story of the university – what better way to celebrate that than by bringing in four of Jerusalem’s change-makers?”

The July 16 TED Talk-style event at the Jewish Community Centre of Greater Vancouver – hosted by CFHU, the Jerusalem Foundation and JCCGV – “is a celebration of the start-up nation and the role the city is playing in becoming a centre for innovation and technology,” said Wachtel. “Thus, it is also the story of how innovation improves the lives of humanity in this world regardless of boundaries of any kind: geographical, political, ethnic, religious.”

At the event called Jerusalem of Gold: Capital of Innovation & Tech, the speakers will be Lior Schillat, director general of Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research; Maya Halevy, executive director of Bloomfield Science Museum Jerusalem; Yonatan Avraham, student ambassador of HUstart, the university’s entrepreneurship centre; and Tamir Huberman, vice-president of business development and information-technology director of Yissum, the technology transfer company of Hebrew U. The Jewish Independent interviewed each of the presenters in anticipation of their Vancouver visit, and will feature Schillat and Halevy this week, and Avraham and Huberman on July 7.

Schillat will talk about Jerusalem’s Population: What Does the Future Hold? But first, what about the Jerusalem of the past – what would have inspired a Canadian Jew to make aliyah 50 years ago?

Actually, said Schillat, in the 20th century, the biggest wave of immigrants from countries such as Canada came right after the Six Day War.

“If you’re Canadian and you’re making aliyah in ’67 and you’re choosing Jerusalem for your home, I guess the main reason you would do that would be because of the spiritual effect the glorious victory of 1967 would have on you,” said Schillat.

“If you are a bit more practical, you also understand that, with this victory, Jerusalem, for the first time since 1948, became again the centre of the country … centre in the geographical meaning and also the centre of attention as to what was going on in the country.”

Fifty years later, he said, while “we still haven’t reached some kind of stability in the situation in Jerusalem,” the city “is one of the most interesting … cities in Israel, and why is that? First of all, it’s Jerusalem, meaning it’s beautiful, it has stories that are in the heart of billions of people all over the world…. I would say the Jerusalem brand is stronger than any other brand in Israel, including the Israeli brand itself…. So, if you would come to Jerusalem, it would be because you want to spend your life in a way that is a bit more meaningful than … in any other city in Israel, in any other Western country.”

In Jerusalem, he said, “from the moment you wake up until the moment you go to sleep, you live for something, for an idea. It’s true for everyone – of course it’s true for religious people, but it’s also … true for secular people. Life here just has much more meaning. You know, it’s not for nothing that Jerusalem is 10% of the Israeli population but 25% of civic society organizations are based here. And if you look at Israel’s biggest struggles or debates, many of them were generated from the Jerusalem society.”

Jerusalem is a completely different city than it was 50 years ago, said Schillat. “Jerusalem is one of the most advanced high-tech ecosystems in the world today…. When you look at the numbers, you see that, today, Jerusalem is considered among the 30 biggest ecosystems in the world. And some of the researchers even say that they would consider it for next year among the 20.”

It’s not the tech hub that Tel Aviv is, he acknowledged, but, in proportion to its population, Jerusalem rates high on the tech scene. And this shouldn’t be surprising, he said.

“People here are using their minds all the time, and high-tech is exactly that – it’s how you use your mind in order to create gain, in order to create technology that could help better the world…. The number of technological companies in this city has more than doubled in the last four years. The number of employees in high-tech is growing 15% every year for the last three years.”

Schillat gave as the best example of Jerusalem’s growing prominence in this area the recent acquisition by Intel of Jerusalem-based company Mobileye for $15.3 billion. Not only that, he said, but Intel also has decided to base in Jerusalem its international research and development centre for autonomous cars.

“I don’t see the Jerusalem of the future as being another New York or another Frankfurt or another Tel Aviv; it won’t be a financial centre. I see it as a city of knowledge; of creating fruits from thinking, from knowledge, from discussion. And I also think that Jerusalem is facing now the amazing challenge, and very hard challenge, of integrating into this group of thinkers and builders the more weak populations…. The real test for Jerusalem for the next 50 years would be, ‘Did you integrate the Charedi groups, did you integrate the Arab groups into this economic development model of a city of thinkers, or did you just go with this idea by yourself, meaning just a small elite group of thinkers went with it by themselves and left the majority of the city behind?”

One facility that is trying to integrate various population groups is Bloomfield Science Museum. Founded and operated by the Jerusalem Foundation and HU, the museum is supported by the national and municipal governments. Its website describes science “as a common language that disregards physical borders, cultural and religious differences and enables dialogue among participants with a common interest and diverse backgrounds.” Halevy will talk on the topic Raising a Start-up Nation.

“There is much research that shows that young kids love science and science classes,” she said, “but they don’t see themselves in a STEM [science, technology, engineering and mathematics] career, mainly because they believe that having a STEM career is being a scientist, which they think it is to work alone in a lab, and can be relevant only to the best scholars. Our role is to show the variety of opportunities that STEM learning can open for them in a future career.”

Bloomfield serves as a lab and hub for education programs, she said. “As a lab, we develop new approaches, new pedagogy, new tools, and we test those with a variety of people, as we are also a hub for all the communities in Jerusalem.”

The museum collaborates with institutions around the world, as well. A current exhibit that will travel to Ottawa, among other places, is the Bicycle Exhibition 2 x 200. The new Canada Science and Technology Museum is set to open in November after extensive renovations and the exhibit is scheduled to arrive there after a few other stops.

The idea for the exhibit came when Halevy was on a visit to Ottawa in October 2015, at the request of then-Israeli ambassador to Canada Raphael Barak, “who wished to develop cooperation among cultural institutions from Canada and Israel.”

Visiting the museum while it was under renovation, Halevy saw the collection of bicycles it had in storage and learned that 2017 would mark 200 years since this invention.

“So we decided to focus our cooperation on a bicycle exhibition,” she said, “to use their collection and to add interactive exhibits – we are very experienced in this field – and the idea was that we will develop and build the whole exhibition in Jerusalem and later on it will travel to Ottawa.

“We were lucky to find two more partners, from Germany and Italy, that loved the concept of the exhibition and that wished to join us, so the tour will start in Jerusalem, will move to Bremen (July 2018) and then to Naples (July 2019) and will end in Ottawa (2020). We were also approached by other museums that wish to present the exhibition after the partners’ tour ends.”

Bloomfield signed a letter of intent with Ontario Science Centre last year. “The main idea is to develop our cooperation around the culture of innovation and to start developing this culture from an early age, as the future of both our economies is based today on innovation and entrepreneurship,” explained Halevy. “We plan to develop together an interactive exhibition and special programs for young children and youth and to connect them to each other. We wish to open the exhibition and launch the programs in 2018 – 70 years to the establishment of Israel. During my time in Toronto, I will have a meeting with the CEO and president of the Ontario Science Centre, Dr. Maurice Bitran, to discuss it more in-depth.”

As for other collaborations with Canadian institutions, Halevy said, “We might develop new collaborations on my tour, as I plan to visit my colleagues from Calgary and Vancouver.”

Jerusalem of Gold: Capital of Innovation & Tech is open to the public. Tickets are $45, though Wachtel said, “Students who are interested in coming to the event are welcome to register at our office and receive a free ticket.” For tickets, the speakers’ bios and other information, visit cfhu.org, email vanc@cfhu.org or call 604-257-5133.

Israel’s BDS website

Featured on israelbds.org are popular articles that describe the history of Israeli-international scientific cooperation, research that has resulted from that cooperation and the people involved, as well as links to scientific papers. (image from israelbds.org)

Building Dialogue through Science, or BDS, is the purpose of a new website, israelbds.org, which features the many and varied scientific studies that rely on close collaboration between Israeli researchers and those in different countries.

These studies range from the SESAME synchrotron, a Middle Eastern facility based in Jordan that serves life-sciences researchers from Egypt to Iran; efforts to discover the processes that lead to the stellar explosions known as supernovae, in which Israeli researchers are alerted to possible events in the California night sky; brain research; quantum physics studies; scientific archeology; and much more.

Featured on the website are popular articles that describe the history of Israeli-international scientific cooperation, research that has resulted from that cooperation and the people involved, as well as links to scientific papers.

“Building dialogue through science, rather than building walls, has always been our way of doing things,” said Weizmann Institute of Science president Prof. Daniel Zajfman. “If we are going to work against the other BDS [boycott, divest from and sanction Israel], we must do so with real information. That is the intent of the site we have created. When scientists cooperate in their research, they bring back to their countries an understanding of the ways people can work together on many levels – over and above the scientific – including respect for other cultures and a desire for peaceful coexistence. That is why we believe that cooperation between Israeli scientists and those in universities and research institutes around the globe must be preserved at all costs.”

The hope, indeed, is that anyone visiting the website will understand what the world stands to lose from cutting off ties to Israel’s researchers and preventing students and labs around the globe from benefiting from Israeli advances.

Valeria Ulisse, an Italian research student studying the development of the nervous system at the Weizmann Institute of Science sums it up: “In Italy, I was in a really good lab but I was missing something internally. I wanted to improve my knowledge, to start a new project, to change my life and I found the place to do it.”

Israeli science is open to collaboration with anyone, independent of their political opinions.

“Research thrives on the meeting of different worldviews, and it is important to preserve that freedom to meet and discuss, even with those with whom we don’t always agree,” said Zajfman.

 

A potential malaria vaccine

A malaria vaccine based on stabilized proteins could circumvent today’s problems. (photo from wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il)

Despite decades of malaria research, the disease still afflicts hundreds of millions and kills around half a million people each year – most of them children in tropical regions.

Part of the problem is that the malaria parasite is a shape-shifter, making it hard to target. But another part of the problem is that even the parasite’s proteins that could be used as vaccines are unstable at tropical temperatures and require complicated, expensive cellular systems to produce them in large quantities. Unfortunately, the vaccines are most needed in areas where refrigeration is lacking and funds to buy vaccines are scarce. A new approach developed at the Weizmann Institute of Science, recently reported in Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, could, in the future, lead to an inexpensive malaria vaccine that can be stored at room temperature.

The RH5 protein is one of the malaria parasite’s proteins that has been tested for use as a vaccine. This protein is used by the parasite to anchor itself to the red blood cells it infects. Using the protein as a vaccine alerts the immune system to the threat without causing disease, thus enabling it to mount a rapid response when the disease strikes, and to disrupt the parasite’s cycle of infection.

Research student Adi Goldenzweig and Dr. Sarel Fleishman of the institute’s biomolecular sciences department decided to use the computer-based protein design tools they have been developing in Fleishman’s lab to improve the usefulness of this protein.

Based on software they have been creating for stabilizing protein structures, Goldenzweig developed a new way of “programming” proteins used in vaccines against infectious diseases. Such proteins, because they are under constant attack by the immune system, tend to mutate from generation to generation. So, the program she developed uses all the known information on different configurations of the protein sequence in different versions of the parasite. “The parasite deceives the immune system by mutating its surface proteins,” she explained. “Paradoxically, the better the parasite is at evading the immune system, the more clues it leaves for us to use in designing a successful artificial protein.”

The researchers sent the programmed artificial protein to a group in Oxford that specializes in developing malaria vaccines. This group, led by Prof. Matthew Higgins and Simon Draper, soon had good news: the results showed that, in contrast with the natural ones, the programmed protein can be produced in simple, inexpensive cell cultures, and in large quantities. This could significantly lower production costs. In addition, it is stable at temperatures of up to 50°C, so it won’t need refrigeration. Best of all, in animal trials, the proteins provoked a protective immune response.

“The method Adi developed is really general,” said Fleishman. “It has succeeded where others have failed and, because it is so easy to use, it might be applied to emerging infectious diseases like Zika or Ebola, when quick action can stop an epidemic from developing.”

Fleishman and his group are currently using their method to test a different strategy for treating malaria, based on targeting the RH5 protein itself and blocking its ability to mediate the contact between the parasite and human red blood cells.

For more on the research being conducted at the Weizmann Institute, visit wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il.

Forgetting our fright?

An entire mouse brain viewed from above: neuronal extensions connect the two amygdalas (brightest spots on both sides of the brain) with the prefrontal cortex (top). (photo from wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il)

Erasing unwanted memories is still the stuff of science fiction, but Weizmann Institute scientists have now managed to erase one type of memory in mice. In a study reported in Nature Neuroscience, they succeeded in shutting down a neuronal mechanism by which memories of fear are formed in the mouse brain. After the procedure, the mice resumed their earlier fearless behavior, “forgetting” they had previously been frightened.

This research may one day help extinguish traumatic memories in humans – for example, in people with post-traumatic stress disorder, or PTSD.

“The brain is good at creating new memories when these are associated with strong emotional experiences, such as intense pleasure or fear,” said team leader Dr. Ofer Yizhar. “That’s why it’s easier to remember things you care about, be they good or bad; but it’s also the reason that memories of traumatic experiences are often extremely long-lasting, predisposing people to PTSD.”

In the study, postdoctoral fellows Dr. Oded Klavir (now an investigator at the University of Haifa) and Dr. Matthias Prigge, both from Yizhar’s lab in the neurobiology department, together with departmental colleague Prof. Rony Paz and graduate student Ayelet Sarel, examined the communication between two brain regions: the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. The amygdala plays a central role in controling emotions, whereas the prefrontal cortex is mostly responsible for cognitive functions and storing long-term memories. Previous studies had suggested that the interactions between these two brain regions contribute to the formation and storage of aversive memories, and that these interactions are compromised in PTSD, but the exact mechanisms behind these processes were unknown.

In the new study, the researchers first used a genetically engineered virus to mark those amygdala neurons that communicate with the prefrontal cortex. Next, using another virus, they inserted a gene encoding a light-sensitive protein into these neurons. When they shone a light on the brain, only the neurons containing the light-sensitive proteins became activated. These manipulations, belonging to optogenetics – a technique extensively studied in Yizhar’s lab – enabled the researchers to activate only those amygdala neurons that interact with the cortex, and then to map out the cortical neurons that receive input from these light-sensitive neurons.

Once they had achieved this precise control over the cellular interactions in the brain, they turned to exploring behaviour: mice that are less fearful are more likely to venture farther than others. They found that when the mice were exposed to fear-inducing stimuli, a powerful line of communication was activated between the amygdala and the cortex. The mice whose brains displayed such communication were more likely to retain a memory of the fear, acting frightened every time they heard the sound that had previously been accompanied by the fear-inducing stimuli.

Finally, to clarify how this line of communication contributes to the formation and stability of memory, the scientists developed an optogenetic technique for weakening the connection between the amygdala and the cortex, using a series of repeated light pulses. Indeed, once the connection was weakened, the mice no longer displayed fear upon hearing the sound. Evidently, “tuning down” the input from the amygdala to the cortex had destabilized or perhaps even destroyed their memory of fear.

“Our research,” said Yizhar, “has focused on a fundamental question in neuroscience: How does the brain integrate emotion into memory? But, one day, our findings may help develop better therapies targeting the connections between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex, in order to alleviate the symptoms of fear and anxiety disorders.”

For more about the research being done at the Weizmann Institute, visit wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il.

An artificial odour test

(image from wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il)

Say someone claims to have developed a system to “capture” any odour in the form of a digital code – one that could be transmitted online or uploaded to the internet and faithfully reproduced at the receiving end. How could we be sure that the system is valid? In other words, how can we know that, for any possible odour someone has captured digitally and transmitted, the smell we receive is indeed a recognizable, fair rendition of the original?

Prof. David Harel of the Weizmann Institute of Science’s computer science and applied mathematics department explains that, as opposed to video and audio, an odour reproduction system is still far from viable, although some of the components already exist.

“We still don’t understand the process by which the numerous combinations of odourants in our environment are identified and sensed as a particular smell in our brains after they enter our noses, attach to the several hundred kinds of odour receptors there and are transferred to the brain as signals,” he said. But he and his colleagues had, already 15 years ago, laid out the basic principles of such a digital smell system.

This system would need a “sniffer” – a sort of artificial nose – to take “snapshots” of the odourous substances in the air. It would also need a “whiffer” that, something like a colour printer, would be able to mix a fixed set of around 50 chemical odourants in precisely given proportions – something in the way a printer mixes a small number of inks – and release measured amounts of the resulting odour into the air accurately, in a controlled manner.

photo - Prof. David Harel of the Weizmann Institute of Science
Prof. David Harel of the Weizmann Institute of Science. (photo from wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il)

Harel believes that such systems will eventually exist, pointing out that research is continually improving our understanding of how smell is “encoded” and how we perceive it. Although reasonably good sniffers and whiffers exist, the tantalizing scientific challenge is to work out the algorithm for connecting the sniffer’s reading into the whiffer’s emission; that is, a method is needed for translating any given odour into precise instructions for the whiffer to follow. The output mixtures would have to be experienced by humans in the way that photos are today – as reproductions that our sense recognizes as faithfully capturing the original.

Despite the fact that this challenge appears to be extremely difficult, Harel recently devised a test that could be used to assess the validity of such a system, if and when one is proposed. One of his inspirations was the Turing test proposed by the British father of computer science, Alan Turing, to test claims of human-like intelligence in a machine. A tester sits in one room and holds conversations with entities in two other rooms – one a human and the other the candidate computer. Through questions, chitchat and serious discourse, the tester tries to identify which is which; if repeated tests cannot distinguish the computer from the human, it is said to possess artificial intelligence. “The problem with using such a test for artificial olfaction,” said Harel, “is that such blind comparisons are detached from the element of human recognizability; and there is no adequate language to describe smells in general, meaning verbal discussions would not work either.”

Harel devised a “lineup” test, whose key feature is the immersion of odours with their natural audio-visual references, thus eliminating the need for verbal description. A team of neutral testers is given several short video clips – for example, of a bakery, a zoo, a dusty attic, a flowering meadow, etc. – and is asked to match an odour emitted by the sniffer with its correct clip. The clips are prepared by a team of challengers, whose role is to try to disprove the claim that the proposed system is valid.

To make sure that the test is fair – for example, the subjects won’t be required to identify the odour of a damp cave hidden from view in the clip of a meadow scene – the group is divided into two. One half is exposed to the actual odours collected and preserved at the video sites, and the other to the artificial, chemically reproduced odour created by the sniffer-whiffer system. That way, the second team of participants – those smelling the whiffer output – are required only to correctly match the odour to its clip when the first team – those exposed to the real odour – succeeds. As in the Turing test, the artificial is pitted against the natural in a blinded experiment, but here the test uses odour immersion for recognizability, and the test is asymmetric, requiring from the artificial no more than is required from the real thing in order to be declared successful.

For more on the research being conducted at the Weizmann Institute, visit wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il.

Meet scientists of tomorrow

Feinberg Graduate School-Weizmann Institute student Vered Shacham-Silverberg is coming to Vancouver with two of her peers. (photo from Weizmann Canada)

Cliché as it may sound, the future is almost here. On March 29, three PhD students from the Feinberg Graduate School at Weizmann Institute of Science (WIS) in Rehovot will arrive in Vancouver. As part of a North American speaking tour called Scientists of Tomorrow, Vered Shacham-Silverberg, Adi Goldenzweig and Uri Weill will share not only details of their research but also their passion for the Weizmann Institute.

Rather than highlighting established scientists, this tour focuses on the experience of students who are performing the experiments being conducted in the labs.

“I believe that we, as students, enjoy many of the benefits the WIS provides and we can shed more light on those benefits,” said Shacham-Silverberg about why she believes she and her colleagues are well-suited to spread the word about what’s happening at the institute.

photo - Uri Weill
Uri Weill (photo from Weizmann Canada)

“We know firsthand how important it is to have a supporting and nurturing environment in research,” said Weill. “We can also bring stories from the working bench of live research that is happening now.”

WIS focuses exclusively on basic science research, the kind of investigation and experimentation that answers big questions. Its students are given the opportunity to have some of the brightest minds in the world as their supervisors and to use some of the best equipment in their research. WIS scientists are uncovering mysteries such as how the body works on the molecular level, and are translating their findings into ways to improve the world in which we live.

For example, Weill is creating a living catalogue of more than 6,000 yeast strains, so scientists can study how certain proteins function both as healthy organisms and diseased ones. His research in the department of molecular genetics could have far-reaching applications to finding cures for many illnesses.

Goldenzweig’s study of how proteins work with molecules has led to the discovery of a way to stabilize proteins that are usually structurally fragile when created in large quantities in a lab. The algorithm she has developed was recently successfully applied to a protein to combat malaria. This could be the key to developing an effective malaria vaccine.

And Shacham-Silverberg is working to discover how to improve the way the body gets rid of unproductive neurons in order to make room for the ones that will lead to best function. Her research will lead to discoveries in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, ALS and Parkinson’s.

Having these students visit Vancouver is a unique chance for the local Jewish community. The students will not only share some of their research but also their perspectives on being students in Israel.

photo - Adi Goldenzweig
Adi Goldenzweig (photo from Weizmann Canada)

“Although there are many women in the life science faculties,” said Goldenzweig, “unfortunately … their number decreases dramatically in established positions. But this keeps changing and we’ll hopefully be closer to 50% within a few decades.”

WIS is also interested in promoting benefits for Canadian students interested in science. Every year, two Canadian second-year undergraduate students receive a fully paid two-month supervised internship over the summer in a lab at the institute. Two years ago, one of the recipients of this scholarship was a University of British Columbia student whose experience was so positive, he was asked to return the following summer.

The other program is the Kupcinet-Getz International Summer School, a four-week internship with funding currently for six Canadian students. The program brings together 80 pre-university students interested in research in physics, math, chemistry and the life sciences from a total of 17 countries. Many of these students are experiencing Israel for the first time, and form lasting impressions of and connections to the country. As well, they are introduced to some of the possibilities for their future in science.

The immersive scientific experience is what makes these summer programs so exciting for students, and is part of what drew Shacham-Silverberg, Goldenzweig and Weill to study at WIS.

Weill said he chose the institute because of the access to cutting-edge research tools, which enable him to ask and find the answers to new questions. He added, “At the WIS, we have collaborations with labs from around the world. It makes for the perfect conditions for scientific discovery.”

On March 29, all are welcome to come and learn more about scientific innovation in Israel. At the end of the students’ presentations, a dessert reception will provide a chance to meet the speakers, as well as the Feinberg Graduate School academic secretary, Dr. Ami Shalit. The event is being held in a private home, so if you would like to attend or are looking for more information, contact the WIS Western Canadian development associate, Camille Wenner, at 604-260-8506 or Camille@weizmann.ca.

Michelle Dodek is a freelance writer living in Vancouver.

Curiosity, activism, Judaism

Rebecca Baron gave a TEDx talk last year, calling for more encouragement and more opportunities for women in the STEM fields. Her nine-minute talk can be viewed at tedxkidsbc.com/rebecca-baron. (screenshot)

Rebecca Baron, a teenager who does research on air quality and speaks out about the gender gap in the sciences, has won the inaugural Temple Sholom Teen Tikkun Olam Award.

Baron will be given the award on March 5 at Temple Sholom’s Dreamers and Builders Gala, honouring world-renowned landscape architect Cornelia Hahn Oberlander.

“We are incredibly proud to be able to offer this Temple Sholom Teen Tikkun Olam Award to Rebecca,” said Temple Sholom Rabbi Dan Moskovitz. “Even at a relatively young age, Rebecca had demonstrated a passionate commitment to using her intellect and Jewish values to repair brokenness in our world.”

Baron, 16, is currently a Grade 11 student at Prince of Wales Mini School but has already been recognized nationally for her experiments on air quality. She won top medals at the Canada-Wide Science Fair in 2015 for research on whether bacteria found in household plant roots filter formaldehyde from paint fumes. Last summer, she won an award for the best business plan at a national student program focused on STEM (science, technology, engineering and math).

Baron said in an interview that she became aware of a gender gap in the sciences as early as Grade 3. As an example, boys and girls were interested in dissecting a fish when she was in kindergarten – she was so excited about the project that she decided at that moment to become a scientist. But when her class did a similar experiment in Grade 3, many girls were no longer interested. In subsequent years, she noticed how stereotypes, social pressure and cultural biases pushed many young girls away from the sciences.

She felt the curriculum that she experienced was not geared to encouraging girls to pursue studies in STEM. For instance, women were seldom portrayed as scientists in textbooks.

On their own, the incidents may not seem like much, but small things add up and contribute to an overall negative effect, she said. Statistics Canada in 2014 reported that women account for only 22% of the STEM-related workforce. Baron gave a TEDx talk last year calling for more encouragement and more opportunities for women in the STEM fields.

Baron attributed her unflagging interest in math and science to encouragement from family and friends. “It may be harder for others who do not have as much support as I have,” she said. “I just pushed through it.”

As her fascination with science developed, Baron began to conduct experiments at home, working on the kitchen counter. After winning awards, she “cold-called” academic researchers to ask if she could use their labs. Eventually, she found someone who said yes.

She now conducts her experiments after school in a lab at the University of British Columbia’s Life Sciences Institute. She also takes part in Science World’s Future Science Leaders program.

She linked her intellectual curiosity and social activism to values instilled by her parents and inspired by Judaism. She sees Judaism as valuing the strength and wisdom of women.

“The Torah emphasizes the emotional and physical differences between men and women,” she said in her submission for the Tikkun Olam Award. “However, these defining characteristic are not seen as inferior or superior to one another, but instead are considered to have cause for equal celebration.”

Baron went to Vancouver Talmud Torah for kindergarten, and from grades 3 to 7. Her bat mitzvah was at Masada, the Israeli mountaintop that symbolizes the determination of the Jewish people to control their own fate. As she stood amid the archeological ruins and looked toward Jerusalem, she felt a strong connection with the Jewish people. “It was a really neat experience,” she said. “I definitely did not expect that.”

She intends to use the Tikkun Olam Award money to help develop a nonprofit organization to encourage young women to pursue STEM and familiarize them with job-related opportunities.

Moskovitz said the annual Temple Sholom award is for a Jewish teen who is “doing the sacred and important work of tikkun olam,” regardless of affiliation or religious congregation.

The award was made possible by Temple Sholom members Michelle and Neil Pollack, who initiated efforts to create a prize recognizing teens who make a difference. Their generosity enabled Temple Sholom to make the Dreamers and Builders Teen Tikkun Olam Award an annual celebration and recognition of one of many inspiring Jewish teens in Vancouver.

Robert Matas, a Vancouver-based writer, is a former journalist with the Globe and Mail.

How trees adapt to conditions

The Weizmann Tree Lab, left to right: Dr. Tamir Klein, Ido Rog, Yael Wagner, Omri Lapidot and Shacham Magidish. (screenshot from wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il)

While studying trees during his postdoctoral fellowship, Dr. Tamir Klein made such a startling discovery that his research supervisor at the University of Basel at first declared that it must have been a mistake. In the forest, trees are known to compete for resources such as light and nutrients, but Klein found that the same trees also engage in sharing: he showed that carbon molecules taken up by the canopies of mature spruce trees were passed through the soil in large quantities to neighbouring beech, larch and pine. As he reported in Science in 2016, the carbon was being transferred via “underground highways” formed by overlapping networks of root fungi.

“Neighbouring trees interact with one another in complex ways,” said Klein. “Of course, there is a great deal of competition among them, but they also form communities, sorts of ‘guilds,’ within which individual trees share valuable resources. In fact, trees belonging to a ‘guild’ usually do much better than those that don’t.”

In his new lab in the Weizmann Institute’s plant and environmental sciences department, Klein follows up on these findings to investigate tree ecophysiology: how the tree functions in its ecosystem.

“Studies on ‘underground’ tree collaboration may reveal which tree species get along well, and this may help determine which trees should be planted next to one another,” he said. “Our studies have additional relevance to forestry and agriculture because we elaborate on the mechanisms of growth and drought resistance of different tree species.”

Only five percent of Israel’s land is covered by forest, but the country nonetheless offers unique advantages for forest research: its hot, dry climate provides an opportunity for investigating how trees adapt to drought and stress. Many trees common to Israel are already resistant to drought; understanding the mechanisms that allow them to live with little rain may help develop varieties of lemons, almonds, olives and other tree crops that can grow in even drier areas.

image - A micro-computer tomography scan of a Jerusalem pine branch, performed after a dry spell, reveals large amounts of air (blue) filling the water channels
A micro-computer tomography scan of a Jerusalem pine branch, performed after a dry spell, reveals large amounts of air (blue) filling the water channels. (image from wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il)

Projects in Klein’s lab aim to clarify how trees manage their water and carbon budgets – both separately and as a forest community. In one study, the team focuses on emboli: tiny air bubbles that form inside the tree’s water channels during drought. When drought persists, the emboli can kill a tree, much like blood vessel clots that can cause a fatal heart attack in a human being. After injecting fluids into tree branches at different pressures, Klein and his students analyze the emboli in the minutest detail, using micro-computed tomography.

In Weizmann’s greenhouses, Klein’s team members experiment with seedlings of pine, cypress, carob and other trees commonly found in Israel. The researchers make use of advanced technologies, including nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, to study hydraulic conductivity in trees and a special lamp-equipped belowground camera to study the growth of tree roots in the soil.

When conducting field studies on their research plot near Beit Shemesh, Klein and his students hug trees – not to have a spiritual experience, but to follow a tree’s growth by encircling the trunk with a measuring tape. In parallel, they apply laser isotope analysis and analytical chemistry techniques to trace carbon metabolism in individual trees, and they investigate carbon transfer among trees via different types of fungal “highways.” The scientists also employ thermal imaging, which enables remote temperature measurements, to study the rate of evaporation in the foliage.

These studies will help predict how future climate changes, including global warming and the rise in greenhouse gases, may affect forests. In one set of experiments, for example, Klein will double the concentration of CO2 to mimic the atmospheric conditions that may emerge on earth as a result of pollution. Klein hasn’t owned a car in 10 years, so as not to contribute to CO2 emissions, but he warns against jumping to conclusions when it comes to the impact of increased CO2 on tree biology. “Higher CO2 concentrations don’t help trees grow faster – contrary to the hopes of industrialists – but, surprisingly, recent research suggests they might render the trees more resistant to drought-induced stress. This doesn’t mean it’s OK to carry on with CO2 pollution, but it does mean that we need to deepen our understanding of its effects on trees in general and on agricultural tree crops in particular.”

Klein is the incumbent of the Edith and Nathan Goldenberg Career Development Chair. His research is supported by Nella and Leon Y. Benoziyo; and Norman Reiser. More on Weizmann Institute research can be found at wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il.